Protein degradation and turnover are essential processes in cells, ensuring that damaged, misfolded, or unnecessary proteins are removed and replaced with functional ones. This process maintains cellular homeostasis, regulates cellular functions, and prevents the accumulation of toxic protein aggregates. There are two primary systems for protein degradation in cells: the ubiquitin-proteasome system UPS and the autophagy-lysosome pathway.1. Ubiquitin-Proteasome System UPS : The UPS is responsible for the selective degradation of short-lived, damaged, or misfolded proteins. The process involves three main steps: a. Ubiquitination: A small protein called ubiquitin is attached to the target protein by a series of enzymes E1, E2, and E3 . This process involves the formation of an isopeptide bond between the carboxyl group of ubiquitin and the amino group of a lysine residue on the target protein. Multiple ubiquitin molecules are added, forming a polyubiquitin chain. b. Recognition and unfolding: The 26S proteasome, a large protein complex, recognizes the polyubiquitinated protein. The 19S regulatory particle of the proteasome binds to the ubiquitin chain and unfolds the target protein. c. Proteolysis: The unfolded protein is then translocated into the 20S core particle of the proteasome, where it is cleaved into small peptides by proteolytic enzymes called proteases. These peptides are further degraded into amino acids, which can be reused for protein synthesis.2. Autophagy-Lysosome Pathway: This pathway is responsible for the degradation of long-lived proteins, protein aggregates, and organelles. Autophagy involves the formation of a double-membrane structure called the autophagosome, which engulfs the target protein or organelle. The autophagosome then fuses with a lysosome, forming an autolysosome. Within the autolysosome, the target protein is degraded by lysosomal enzymes, including proteases, lipases, and nucleases.Specific enzymes involved in protein degradation include:1. Proteases: These enzymes cleave peptide bonds in proteins, breaking them down into smaller peptides and amino acids. Examples include the proteases in the 20S core particle of the proteasome and lysosomal proteases, such as cathepsins.2. Deubiquitinating enzymes DUBs : These enzymes remove ubiquitin chains from target proteins before degradation, allowing ubiquitin to be recycled.3. E1, E2, and E3 enzymes: These enzymes are involved in the ubiquitination process, with E1 activating ubiquitin, E2 transferring it to E3, and E3 ligating ubiquitin to the target protein.In summary, protein degradation and turnover in cells occur through the ubiquitin-proteasome system and the autophagy-lysosome pathway. Various enzymes, including proteases, deubiquitinating enzymes, and ubiquitin ligases, are involved in the breakdown of different types of proteins.