1. Acid-catalyzed formation of an ether from an alcohol Williamson Ether Synthesis :The Williamson Ether Synthesis is a nucleophilic substitution reaction that involves the reaction of an alkoxide ion from an alcohol with an alkyl halide to form an ether. The mechanism proceeds as follows:Step 1: Protonation of the alcoholThe alcohol reacts with a strong acid usually H2SO4 or HCl to form a protonated alcohol, which is a better leaving group.R-OH + H+ R-OH2+Step 2: Formation of the alkoxide ionA strong base usually an alkoxide ion deprotonates the protonated alcohol to form an alkoxide ion, which is a strong nucleophile.R-OH2+ + B- R-O- + HBStep 3: Nucleophilic substitutionThe alkoxide ion attacks the electrophilic carbon of the alkyl halide in an SN2 reaction, displacing the halide ion and forming the ether product.R-O- + R'-X R-O-R' + X-Factors influencing the yield of the ether product:- The use of primary alkyl halides is preferred, as secondary and tertiary alkyl halides are prone to elimination reactions E2 instead of substitution.- The reaction is favored by polar aprotic solvents, which stabilize the transition state and increase the rate of the SN2 reaction.- Steric hindrance should be minimized to allow the nucleophile to approach the electrophilic carbon.2. Reaction of an alkene with a peroxyacid to produce an epoxide Prilezhaev Epoxidation :The Prilezhaev Epoxidation involves the reaction of an alkene with a peroxyacid RCO3H to form an epoxide. The mechanism proceeds as follows:Step 1: Nucleophilic attack by the alkeneThe alkene acts as a nucleophile and attacks the electrophilic carbonyl carbon of the peroxyacid, forming a cyclic intermediate with the oxygen of the peroxyacid.R2C=CR2 + RCO3H R2C O- CR2-O-OC O RStep 2: Rearrangement and formation of the epoxideThe cyclic intermediate undergoes a rearrangement, with the oxygen-oxygen bond breaking and the negatively charged oxygen attacking the adjacent carbon, forming the epoxide product and a carboxylic acid byproduct.R2C O- CR2-O-OC O R R2C O CR2 + RCO2HFactors influencing the yield of the epoxide product:- The use of electron-rich alkenes increases the nucleophilicity of the alkene and the rate of the reaction.- Steric hindrance should be minimized to allow the nucleophile to approach the electrophilic carbon.- The reaction is favored by polar solvents, which stabilize the transition state and increase the rate of the reaction.