metal
Summary The transition metals are characterized by partially filled d subshells in the free elements and cations. The ns and n 1 d subshells have similar energies, so small influences can produce electron configurations that do not conform to the general order in which the subshells are filled. In the secondand third-row transition metals, such irregularities can be difficult to predict, particularly for the third row, which has 4f, 5d, and 6s orbitals that are very close in energy. The increase in atomic radius is greater between the 3d and 4d metals than between the 4d and 5d metals because of the lanthanide contraction. Ionization energies and electronegativities increase slowly across a row, as do densities and electrical and thermal conductivities, whereas enthalpies of hydration decrease. Anomalies can be explained by the increased stabilization of half-filled and filled subshells. Transition-metal cations are formed by the initial loss of ns electrons, and many metals can form cations in several oxidation states. Higher oxidation states become progressively less stable across a row and more stable down a column. Oxides of small, highly charged metal ions tend to be acidic, whereas oxides of metals with a low charge-to-radius ratio are basic.